Chapter 12 - Technology in Social Studies Instruction

Issues and Problems in Social Studies Instruction

Methods of Addressing Social Studies Instruction Standards - There are 10 themes that form the social studies standards. At elementary and middle school, schools usually address social studies curriculum by teaching a variety of topics from these strands. In high school, it is more specific such as history and civics.
The 10 themes are:

1. Culture
2. Time, continuity, and change
3. People, places, and environments
4. Individual development and identity
5. Individuals, groups, and institutions
6. Power, authority, and governance
7. Production, distribution, and consumption
8. Science, technology, and society
9. Global connections
10. Civic ideals and practices

Dilemmas in Teaching Social Studies Effectively

Since many teachers tend to focus instruction primarily on tested topics, social studies is often put on the back burner. The shear amount of material to review creates an ongoing challenge to schools teach social studies in a meaningful way. Adding to this challenge is the role of technology itself. And the issue of costs for high quality resources.

See Top Ten Strategies for Technology in Social Studies Instruction, page 353

Perils of the Information Explosion

The ready availability of information on the Internet has created several concerns for social studies education. First, some believe that Internet information has the potential to alter the traditional relationship between the teacher and the student. (Because the student may find different information on a website.) Schools need to "mobilize their curriculum leaders into quality management" to monitor and help students become more analytical about the information they receive.

Technology Integration Strategies for Social Studies Instruction

Simulated Problem-Solving Environments - lets students interact with simulated models of environments or events - see Figure 12.2 page 356

Graphic Representations - Graphing software and other tools represent abstract concepts in more concrete forms - see Figure 12.3 page 356

Virtual Trips - Some of the same instructional benefits of simulated environments but not as interactive. They send students to Internet locations to supplement or replace real field trip.

Student Telecollaborations - Email and the Internet let students in various locations share diverse perspectives.

Digital storytelling - the use of digital images in social studies can accomplish many purposes:

1. Assist students in comparing and contrasting the past and the present.
2. Sensitize students to diverse perspectives and biases.
3. Provide visual cues and reinforce geographic concepts.
4. Represent abstract and concrete social studies concepts.
5. Foster skills in analysis and critical thinking.
6. Facilitate greater connections to the community.
7. Personalize associations with the study of geography, history, economics, government and other related disciplines.

Benefits - images communicate biographies and historical events in ways that make them more real and relevant. **Students need to learn how to analyze images and tell fact from fiction.**

Electronic Research - Since information changes quickly and frequently, Internet sources give students and teachers up-to-date information they could not obtain easily from other sources.

GIS and GPS Lessons - Geographic Information Systems (GISs) house a wealth of information, so the students get a highly graphic way of looking at numerical information, such as population, overlaid on an area map. GPS is Global Positioning System, another system that allows students to look at geography from many different perspectives.

Practice of factual information - Drill-and-practice and instructional game programs are fun, motivational ways to help students remember historical and geographic facts.

Chapter 11 - Technology in Mathematics and Science Instruction

Introduction
Efforts to reform teaching and learning in Science and Math are at the center of the national standards movement. U.S. elementary students perform well compared to other nations but that performance diminishes as our students progress through school.

See Top Ten Strategies for Technology in Math and Science Instruction page 326

Challenges in Implementing the Principles and Standards for School Mathematics

1. Teachers should consider an appropriate combination of off and on computer activities.
2. They should consider technology as a mathematical tool rather than a pedagogical tool.
3. Third they should view technology as a tool for developing student thinking.

Researchers concluded that math software, particularly programs that promote experimentation and problem solving, enables students to embrace key math concepts that are otherwise difficult to grasp.

Technology Integration Strategies for Mathematics Instruction

(Figure 11.1 page 329)

Using Virtual Manipulatives

Benefits

• Supports hands-on activities for learning mathematics.
• Offers flexible environments for exploring complex concepts.
• Provides a concrete representation of abstract concepts.

Fostering Mathematical Problem Solving

NCTM defines problem solving as "engaging in a task for which the solution method is not known in advance."

Regardless of how many math facts, skills or procedures students learn, the true value of math is realized only when students can apply their knowledge to solve problems. Technology is a tool for solving problems. To prepare mathematically powerful citizens for the future, learning to solve problems using mathematics and appropriate technological tools is essential to education at all levels.

Benefits

• Helps students gather data to use in problem solving.
• Provides rich, motivating problem solving environments
• Gives students opportunities to apply mathematical knowledge and skills in meaningful contexts.

Mathematical problem solving does not need to resemble work! Riverdeep's Zoombinis Logical Journey is made up of numerous puzzles in a colorful and engaging environment that allows students to use logic, data analysis, algebra and graphing concepts as if they were playing a game.

Allowing Representation of Mathematical Principles

Research has shown that the use of graphing calculators can improve students' understanding of functions and graphs as well as the interconnections among the symbolic, graphical and numerical representations of problems.

Interactive or dynamic geometry software provides students with an environment in which to make discoveries and conjectures related to geometry concepts and shapes. Instead of memorizing facts or concepts, students can explore and arrive at conclusions on their own.

Benefits

• Makes abstract mathematical concepts more visual and easier to understand.
• Gives students environments in which to make discoveries and conjectures.

Implementing Data-driven Curriculum

Technology provides an ideal means of developing student knowledge and skill related to data analysis.

Benefits

• Provides easy access to many data sets.
• Provides real statistics to support investigations that are timely and relevant.
• Supports development of student knowledge and skill related to data analysis.
• Allows for exploration and presentation data in a graphical form.

Supporting Math-Related Communications

Benefits

• Allows easy contacts with experts.
• Promotes social interaction and discourse about mathematics.
• Allows teachers to reach other teachers for the exchange of ideas.

Motivating Skill Building and Practice

Benefits

• Provides motivating practice in foundation skills needed for higher order learning.
• Provides guided instruction within a structured learning environment.
• Delivers instruction when teacher may not be available.

Examples: Boxer Math, PLATO Learning, Waterford Early Math and Science

Figure 11.11 (p. 337) lists some useful websites for mathematics instruction.

Issues and Problems in Science Instruction

Growing concern - declining number of students (especially females and minorities pursuing studies in math, science, and engineering fields). America faces a growing crisis in leadership for much-needed science/technology/math/engineering initiatives.

New Emphasis on Controversies About Scientific Inquiry

Approaches commonly adopted in the classroom:

• Technology is viewed as a tool, much like a pencil or pen, but considerably more powerful.
• Use of technology is primarily taught in the context of solving problems.
• Students help one another with the mechanics of technology; in fact, in many classrooms, students are the local experts on technological details.
• Talk about and around technology is as important as the technology itself, just as talk about how one finds and uses information is as important as the information itself.
• Technology is used to augment communication by expanding audience (e.g., over networks and by producing hard copy) and expressive options (e.g., mixing graphs and words).

Technology Integration Strategies for Science Instruction

(See Figure 11.12, page 338)

Supporting Authentic Science Experiences

Technology can be used to teach specific elements of the scientific inquiry process:

1. Locating information to investigate scientific issues and questions.
2. Collecting data.
3. Visualizing data and phenomena.
4. Analyzing data.
5. Communicating results.

Benefits:

• Provides resources needed for doing each phase of authentic science activities.
• Some Internet projects provide environments that support all phases of an authentic science project.

Supporting Science Concept Learning

Benefits:

• Allows simulating and modeling of scientific processes.
• Provides opportunities to engage in problem-solving activities.

Students often have difficulty understanding complex scientific concepts, especially when they are only presented in text as non-moving static images. Simulations and animations can make those concepts clearer.

Assessing Science Information and Tools

The Internet has opened up a world of opportunities for learning beyond the classroom. Students can control a Rover like ones on Mars or operate a telescope or camera from the space shuttle. The Internet also is an invaluable resource for up-to-date science information. Teachers can also use the Internet for assistance with content knowledge and for professional development opportunities that may not be available locally.

Benefits:

• Allows access to unique tools and collections of information.
• Expands opportunities for learning.

Chapter 9 - Technology in English and Language Arts Instruction

Issues and Problems in English and LA Instruction

Expanding the Definition of Literacy - students are entering an rea when they will spend the majority of their literacy time engaged in electronic forms of communication. As new technologies emerge, so does the need for new literacies; therefore it is critical that students learn how to learn new technologies of literacy.

Exploring New Instructional Practices - Teachers are expected to provide new forms of literacy instruction so that students know how to locate, critically evaluate, use, and communicate through technology resources.
Students also need knowledge about the hardware and how to use these devices to create and present multimedia products. Also, there is a growing need for teachers to instruct students to comprehend language in the context of visual images since images play an increasing role in communication.
Clearly new literacies require a high level of critical sophistication of our students and it is only through instruction that they will develop these skills.

Making Decision About Keyboarding Instruction - Ongoing discussion of whether we should teach keyboarding instruction as a prerequisite to the use of computers for writing.
Both arguments are legitimate and most teachers have resolved the issue, by favoring keyboarding instruction if it is available and needed, but not preventing students from using the computer if they do not have good keyboarding skills.

Creating Social Learning Environments - Thanks to the Internet we have a worldwide classroom. This provides a tremendous multicultural benefit to our classrooms that has never existed before.

Working with Diverse Learners - Because many students need additional instruction in literacy, appropriate use of technology can support their growth. Numerous Internet resources are available to assist teachers with struggling readers.

Motivating Students - Teachers are turning to the interactive and visual qualities of software and websites to increase motivation. Technology tools and strategies have emerged to spur students' desire to write, to improve the quality of their written products, and to provide authentic publication sources.

Teachers' Growth as Literacy Professionals - Teachers need to continue to get training so that students can get the technology education they have the right to get.

Technology Intergration Strategies for English and Language Arts Instruction

(See Figure 9.2, page 295)
Strategy 1
Language Skills Development: Decoding/Phonics, Comprehension, Vocabulary
Benefits - gives motivational, individual instruction and/or practice in individual reading and writing skills. Also supplies private, individual feedback to scaffold students' learning.
Sample Resources and Activities - Reading instructional systems, electronic dictionaries and thesauruses, electronic devices, talking word processors

Strategy 2
Literacy Development:
Benefits - Helps match books to students' own interests, Presents reading assignments in ways that students find compelling; helps track reading. Engages students in reading by helping them visualize the people and places in books. Supports the reflection and frequent modification called for in process writing.
Sample Resources and Activities - Networked literacy projects, interactive storybooks, tracking systems, digital storytelling activities, online reading materials, writing in blogs, script writing in video projects, threaded discussions in distance tools.

Strategy 3
Process Approach to Writing - With word processing, students can use producing and revising so it is a process instead of a tool for learning.
Benefits- Supports students as they produce and revise text; frees them to focus on generating and sharing ideas. Supports all stages of the writing process: planning, drafting, revising and editing, and publishing.
Sample Resources and Activities - Word processing, Planning for writing, electronic outliners, concept mapping software, Internet resource sites. Drafting revising, editing, projected images of word-processed drafts, spell checkers, grammar checkers. Publishing: desktop-published brochures, newspapers, and booklets; electronic slide shows; and web pages.

Top Ten Strategies for Technology in English/Language Arts, page 296

Chapter 8 - Intergrating the Internet into the Curriculum

Background on Web-based Learning Activities
Web-based activities have great potential to enhance learning, but they are time consuming to develop and implement and difficult to design in ways that have substantial, positive impact on students' learning.

These questions can form the basis of an integration plan for doing web-based activities:

1. What is the curriculum-related purpose of the activity?
2. Does the internet enhance the activity?
3. How will students use online resources (as opposed to just locating them)?
4. Do students have the necessary information analysis/information synthesis skills or am I including these in the instruction?
5. Do I have the necessary time and support for the activity?

Types and Examples of Web-Based Lessons and Projects

Referred to as telecollaborations (Judi Harris) and she describes three general application categories:

• Interpersonal exchanges
• Information collection and analysis
• Problem solving

Figure 8.1 Types and Examples of Web-based Lessons and Projects (electronic pen pals, electronic mentoring, virtual field trips, electronic publishing, group product development, problem based learning (PBL), social action projects)

Four types of PBLs are:

• Collaborative problem solving
• Parallel problem solving
• Data analysis (use real data such as weather or solar activity)
• Simulated activities

Integration Strategies for Web-based Activities

Page 256, Figure 8.2 is a summary of web-based integration strategies

Page 257, Figure 8.3 good sources of web-based lesson plans, activities, and collaborative projects.

Website Support for Web-based Learning Activities

1. Project overview, announcement, and application - describes existing projects and offers sign up location.
2. Tutorial instruction - offers instruction and information on topics.
3. Information summaries and exchanges -allows information to be added to a collection that will be shared with others.
4. Communication and support - provides virtual meeting places to support students' communications and resources to support project work.
5. Displays of past and current student work - shows examples of students' work in web publications centers.
6. Project development centers - invites the creation of new distance learning projects.

Evaluating web-based lessons - rubric pages 266-67

Resources for Web Page and Website Development

Page 265, Top Ten Strategies for Integrating the Internet into the Curriculum

Web Page and Website Authoring Tools

• HTML is the internet standard for how web pages are formatted and displayed.
• Java is a high level programming language developed by Sun Microsystems.
• VRML develops and displays 3-D objects on web pages. They give the illusion of being "real" much more than videos or animations and can be used to create virtual worlds.
• PERL and other programming languages - web page users can insert their comments or answers into active web pages as they run on a server.

Downloading Images, Programs, and Plug-ins

Resources can be downloaded from a web site to your computer - free from company sites.

Downloading images - why do they make a difference? Because "a picture is worth a thousand words" which means people grasp many concepts more quickly when they are presented as images rather than as text. Also, people remember a great deal of information visually.

There are several image formats (ways of storing images) that have been developed over the years. (BMP, EPS, PDF, PICT, TIF,GIF, JPEG)

Five of the most commonly downloaded programs and plug-ins:

• Browsers (Netscape, Microsoft)
• PDF reader (Adobe)
• Streaming video and audio players (RealNetworks)
• Movie players (Apple computer)
• Animation player (Macromedia)

File Transfer Options

• email attachments
• sending files via file transfer protocol

Procedures for Developing and Evaluating Web Pages and Websites

Required Development Resources - teachers and students can use two different strategies to create their own web pages and websites.

• Creating pages from scratch and linking them or
• Downloading or grabbing existing pages and modifying them for your own use.

Need:

1. Web development software
2. FTP software to transfer and upload pages to a server.
3. Server to house the website

Before you begin, consider:

• limiting sharing of personal information
• limit photos and large graphics
• address web page criteria

Recommended Web Page Development Sequence (page 275, Figure 8.19)

1. Plan and storyboard
2. Develop pages with text
3. Insert images media
4. Insert links and frames
5. Insert interactive elements
6. Test in a browser
7. Publish the site
8. Gather comments and revise

Criteria for Evaluating Web Pages and Website Design

To judge good design quality:

• Good structure and organization (indicates how to get to various parts, option bar)
• Clear text and/or graphic links - branches are organized so that you can get back to the main page in no more than 3 clicks. Larger sites should have a site map.
• Good visual design - designed for good readability.
• Easy navigation - pages load quickly, easy to get around the site, links to get back to main page.

Criteria for Evaluating Student Web Products

(page 279, Figure 8.24 and 8.25, Rubric for Assessing Younger and Older Learners' Web Pages)

Chapter 7 - Introducing the Internet and Other Distance Learning Tools

Background on Distance Education

Placing the Internet in Context – If knowledge is power, as Francis Bacon said, then communication is freedom – freedom for people to reach information they need in order to acquire knowledge that can empower them.

Distance learning – the acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other forms of learning at a distance.

Distance Learning Delivery Systems – the internet was the catalyst for an unprecedented interest in distance learning, it is not the only system for distance learning. It can be done without electronic assistance. (Used to be done with postal system, videos, or live taped.)

See Figure 7.1 – shows classification system for distance learning delivery.

Most popular arrangements for distance learning are video courses or telecourses and web-based courses. Videoconferencing via the Internet also is becoming increasingly popular in K-12 classrooms.

Types of Distance Learning Activities

Student Research
Online Classroom materials
Web-based lessons
Virtual courses and programs

Current Issues in Distance Learning

Digital Divide issues
Development and socialization issues – spending too much time on computers has been cited as harmful to children’s development of relationships and social skills. Limit children’s use of media to 1 to 2 hours per day.
Positive and negative impact on education reform – distance resources are usually used to support traditional approaches.
Virtual schooling issues- several ongoing challenges:
Curriculum alignment
Teacher certification
Accreditation
Funding
Possible negative consequences

Current Research in Distance Learning

Asynchronous courses – where information and messages are left for the receiver to read later tended to show greater gains than Synchronous ones, where communications are sent and received immediately.
Course Characteristics that affect success

High interaction
Support during course
Low technical problems

Research on cost effectiveness of distance learning

Technology
Transmission
Maintenance
Infrastructure
Production
Support
Personnel

Introducing the Internet

Internet means “between or among networks”
World Wide Web is a subset of the Internet system. The WWW is an internet service that links sites around the world through hypertext documents.

Current Pitfalls in Internet Use
Potentials:
1. Accessing sites with inappropriate materials – firewall and/or filtering software
2. Safety and privacy issues for students
· Online predators
· Sales pitches aimed at children
· Privacy issues
3. Fraud on the Internet – teachers must be sure to purchase products only from well-known, reputable sites that offer a secure server.
4. Computer viruses
· Email attachments with viruses
· Downloaded files and programs with viruses
5. Copyright and plagiarism issues

Using Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) – Figure 7.7

Three URL uses – three things to learn about URLs are how to locate them, read them, and “fix” errors in them.

Navigating the Net

Navigating with links- you can travel on the internet by using your mouse to click links, text, or images that have been programmed into the web page to send your browser to another location in the internet.
Navigating with buttons – forward and backward
Navigating with the Go menu – lets you jump around randomly to web pages that you have visited.

Using Bookmarks or Favorites, you can organize them into categories of related items

Starting Up Search Engines

Major search engines include:
Google, Yahoo! And AskJeeves
Metacrawlers:
Dog Pile, Visisimo, HotBot, Kartoo, Mamma

Two search strategies –
Subject index searches – provides a list of topics you can click on.
Keyword searches – type in a combination of words and the search engine displays a list of websites with the word or phrase.

Evaluating Internet Information

The internet is still a wild frontier. With this lack of control, there are three kinds of problems:
Content – some information is incomplete, inaccurate, and/or out of date. An essential skill is being able to evaluate information critically and look for indications that content is accurate and reliable. (Figure 7.20 page 236)
Design – some are poorly designed so that people can’t locate or read information.

Basic Internet Troubleshooting
1. Site connection failures
URL syntax errors
Local or domain server down
Server traffic
Bad or dead links –site may have been taken off the internet
Firewalls
2. Feature on the site will not work
Plug-in required
Compatibility errors
Java and other program errors

Communicating on the Internet

The internet has become the primary form of communication for teachers and students.
Email
Listservs, Bulletin Boards, and Blogs
Chatrooms, Instant Messaging, and Videoconferencing
CyberCollaborations – multiuser dungeons and avatar spaces where users can interact through their graphic representations. Uses of avatar spaces in education are limited but have great potential for fostering visual literacy, motivating students to develop writing or other communication skills, and helping teach skills that involve visual design.

Offering Courses and Programs with Distance Technologies

Web-based courses are becoming increasingly common in K-12 education.
Web Course development and support tools include:
· Course Management System- A school district usually buys a license for a system such as WebCT or Blackboard and their personnel use the system’s features to design and deliver courses that are hosted by their servers.
· Site capturing software – on a high traffic day, the Internet can be as slow as a highway traffic jam!
· Intranets – an internal network- belongs only to an organization and can be assessed only by the organization’s members.
· Electronic whiteboards or smartboards – display screens connected to a computer that multiple users can write or draw on.

Characteristics of Effective Distance Courses and Programs

Well designed and structured to support learning. Ten characteristics:

Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted.
Students can take full responsibility for their learning.
Students are motivated to want to learn.
The course provides “mental white space” for reflection.
Learning activities appropriately match student learning styles.
Experimental, active learning augments the website environment.
Solitary and interpersonal learning activities are interspersed.
Inaccurate prior learning is identified and corrected.
“Spiral learning” provides for revisiting and expanding prior lessons.
The master teacher is able to guide the overall learning process.

Engaging Collaborative Activities

Eight ways of achieving more student engagement:

Require participation
Form learning teams
Make activity interesting
Don’t settle for opinions
Structure the activity
Require a deliverable
Know what you are aiming for
Use peer grading

An interactive learning community is groups who “meet” via email or web pages to support each others learning.

Effective assessment strategies for online courses and programs –
An example is WebCT, which has a test module so instructors can develop objective tests, have students take them online, grade them automatically, and summarize test results across the class.

Assessing the Quality of Distance Courses

See Figure 7.26 on page 244 – There is a rubric for online instruction. (Allows courses to be assessed prior to delivering or taking them.) The DVD (that comes with the textbook) also has a rubric useful for post-course evaluation that focuses on:

Social/rapport-building designs for interaction
Instructional designs for interaction
Interactivity of instructional resources
Evidence of learner engagement
Evidence of instructor engagement

Chapter 6 - Teaching w/ Multimedia and Hypermedia Tools

Multimedia and Hypermedia - How do they differ?

Multimedia means "multiple media" or "a combination of media."
Hypermedia refers to "linked media" or "interactive media" that have their roots in a concept developed by Vannevar Bush.

In current technologies such as Internet browsers and authoring systems, most multimedia products also are hypermedia systems. The combination of media such as video and audio with text makes them multimedia; the ability to get from one media/information element to another makes them hypermedia.

Current and Future Impact of Hypermedia on Education - will enhance classroom learning:

• Increased motivation
• Flexible learning modes (multiple intelligences)
• Development of creative and critical thinking skills
• Improved writing and process skills

Research on the Impact of Multimedia and Hypermedia Systems - Offers students multiple channels through which to process information. Researchers find that students who receive explanations in both visual and verbal format tended to generate more creative solutions on problem-solving transfer tests. Also, learners showed greater comprehension and retention of learned materials when pictures were accompanied by spoken words rather than written words.

Hypermedia primary advantage is allowing rapid searches through lengthy or multiple information resources. The increased learner controls is more useful for higher ability students; lower ability students experience the greatest difficulty with hypermedia. Learner style helps determine whether or not certain hypermedia features are effective in various learning situations.

Research on Design and Use - Characteristics that could have an impact on effectiveness include:

• Instructional design
• Screen design
• Interaction and feedback
• Navigation
• Learner control
• Color
• Graphics
• Animation
• Audio
• Video

Recent Developments in Hypermedia Systems -Three trends in education are evident:

1. The vanishing videodisc
2. Convergence of offline (disc) and online (Internet) development
3. Increasing ease of use

Types of Hypermedia Systems

1. Commercial Hypermedia software packages - see page 191, Figure 6.1 includes:

• Instructional software
• Interactive books and ebooks
• Reference materials

Evaluating commercial products - criteria include: Instructional planning and support, Instructional design, Content, Interface design and navigation, feedback and interactivity.

2. Authoring Tools - see page 196, Figure 6.4, includes authoring materials under each of these categories:

• Presentation software - Audio resources, Video production resources
• Photos
• Graphic Images
• Text

Hardware requirements include: Computer w/ keyboard and monitor, digital cameras, scanners, video digitizers, camcorders and other video input, microphones, and audio speakers.

Sequence of Development Steps for Multimedia Resources - Figure 6.6 page 198

1. Review existing products
2. Research background on topic
3. Storyboard each frame/segment
4. Develop frames/segments
5. Link parts together
6. Test/Revise with users

Evaluating Student Developed Hypermedia - see page 200, Figure 6.7 Checklist for Assessing Products

Presentation Software (Powerpoint) Top Ten Tips for Effective PowerPoint Presentations:

1. Large enough type (32 point font at least)
2. Contrast text and background
3. Minimize text on each frame
4. Too many different items on one frame
5. Avoid too many fancy fonts
6. Avoid gratuitous graphics
7. Avoid gratuitous sounds
8. Use graphics, not just text
9. Present in a dark room
10. Avoid reading text aloud

3. Video Production and Editing Systems (is to motion images what word processing is to text)

Integration Strategies for Video Production and Editing Systems

• Demonstrations of procedures
• Student-created presentation
• Video lectures
• Video portfolios
• Video decision-making/problem-solving simulations
• Documenting of school activities
• Visual literacy instruction
• Teaching of video production

4. Hypermedia Authoring Software

Integration Strategies:

• Brief tutorials
• Student-created presentations
• Interactive storybooks

5. Virtual Reality and and Other Immersion Tools

Virtual reality - some types are now seen in the classrooms. VR can represent real of imaginary worlds in which the user interacts through multiple senses: a true multimedia environment.

• Full immersion systems - not often used in education
• Web based VR - made possible by Virtual Reality Modeling Language and Extensible Mark-up Language. Limited use in education because of technical requirements.
• 3-D models
• QuickTime VR - most common use in K-12 classrooms with actual photographs

Integration Strategies -Imaging for virtual field trips, 3-D models to illustrate how systems work, immersion learning environments for practice and exploration

Chapter 5 - Teaching w/ Software Tools: Beyond the Basic Programs

Why use Software Support Tools?

• Improved efficiency and productivity
• Improved appearance
• Better accuracy and timelines of information
• More support for interaction and sharing

Recent developments in software support tools:

• PDA tools (personal digital assistants)
• Web-connectivity features
• Software suites (Abobe inDesign and Photoshop)

Types of Software Support Tools

1. Materials Generators - Allow creation and use of documents, tests, exercises, IEPs, certificates, PDFs, and forms.

• Desktop publishing software -students can be their own publishers, they can create documents on separate pages and then link them together. Used to practice grammar, spelling and communication, can be used as a method of reporting research findings, and provide opportunities for creative work. ****See page 159 - Top Ten Rules****
• Test generators and test item banks -
• Worksheet and puzzle generators
• IEP generators - helps with teacher accountability, can even accept data updates on student's progress
• Graphic document makers
• PDF and forms makers - (Portable Document Format (Acrobat Reader) teachers can create forms and store them as templates for later use.

2. Data Collection - Collect data from students; track progress and support decision making; analyze data from experiments and research.

• Electronic Gradebooks - require less teacher set-up time than spreadsheets, but also allow less flexibility on format options.
• Statistical packages - Can help with qualitative data collection and analysis and analysis of student performance on tests.
• Student Information systems - (SIS) networked software systems that help educators keep track of student, class, and school data (attendance, test scores) to maintain records and support decision making.
• Online and computer-based testing systems
• Student response systems - also called personal response systems or classroom response systems - combination of handheld hardware and software that permit each student in the classroom to answer a question simultaneously.

3. Graphic Tools - Illustrate documents and web pages, and create visual data summaries.

• Draw/paint programs - (Kid Pix)
• Image editing software - to modify photographic images
• Charting/graphing software - automatically draw and print desired charts or graphs from data entered by users.
• Clip art, animation, sound and font collections -

4. Planning and Organizing Tools - Help organize ideas for writing; help organize, plan, and schedule activities.

• Outlining and concept mapping software - designed to prompt writers as they develop outlines to structure documents they plan to write. Kidspiration for younger users to think through and explore ideas and topics.
• Lesson planning software -
• Scheduling and time management tools - Schedule makers help formulate plans for daily, weekly, or monthly sequences of appointments and events.

5. Research and Reference Tools - Help students research assigned topics.

• Electronic encyclopedias
• Electronic atlases and mapping tools
• Electronic dictionaries and thesauruses

6. Tools to Support Specific Content Areas - support technology education, music, reading, science, math, geography, and social studies.

• CAD systems - computer-assisted design for precise drawings of houses or cars
• MIDI tools: music educators and sequencers - provides blank bars on which the user enters the musical key, time and individual notes
• Reading tools - Readability analysis software automates calculations of word count, average word length, number of sentences, or other measures of reading difficulty. Software designed to track students reading skills is becoming increasingly popular.
• MBLs/CBLs - microcomputer-based lab (probeware) software with special sensors that measure light, temperature, voltage or speed.
• GPS and GIS systems - geographic information systems- after it has stored all of the data that describe a given location, the GIS can then display the data in map form. Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide radionavigation system that uses satellites as reference points.

Chapter 4 - Teaching with the Basic Three Software Tools

The three basic software tools are: word processing, spreadsheet, and database programs.

Why use?

• Improved productivity
• Improved appearance
• Improved accuracy
• More support for interaction (allow input from several people at one time)

In schools, word processing is the most frequently used of the three for productivity purposes. Spreadsheet and database software tend to be used primarily to enhance teacher productivity, rather than student productivity.

Recent Development in Software Tools

• PDA tools (handheld computers)
• Web-enabled features - students may include links in a project report to some resources they consulted during their research.
• Better file exchange compatibility (computer platforms - easy transfer for teachers)
• Software suites and integrated packages (Microsoft Office)

Using Word Processing Software in Teaching and Learning

Teachers use it because it is versatile, flexible, and "model free" meaning it reflects no instructional approach. Advantages to teachers and students:

• Saves time (modifying materials, making corrections)
• Enhances document appearance
• Allows sharing of documents

Issues:

• When should students start word processing? Will it affect handwriting abilities and other activities requiring fine motor skills?
• Is it necessary to teach keyboarding skills?
• What impact does it have on assessment?

Productivity strategies in the classroom:

• Saves preparation time (saving letters that go to parents)

Instructional integration strategies:

• Supporting the learning of writing processes
• Using dynamic group product approach
• Assigning individual language, writing, and reading exercises
• Encouraging writing through the curriculum (font and graphics features allow students to represent concepts in math, science, etc.)

See page 128 Figure 4.7 for Tips on Teaching Word Processing

Using Spreadsheet Software in Teaching and Learning

Spreadsheets are programs designed to organize and manipulate numerical data. (worksheets, cells, formulas)

The impact of spreadsheets in Education

Why teachers use? Help keep budgets, gradebooks, and to help teach math concepts. Also:

• Saves time
• Organizes displays of information
• Supports asking "what if" questions (values are automatically recalculated when changes are made and user can play with numbers and immediately see the result)
• Increases motivation to work with mathematics

Issues using Spreadsheets - use to keep grades or use grade keeping packages? Teachers seem to be evenly divided on which is better. Comes down to personal preference.

Productivity strategies - teachers can use spreadsheets to help prepare classroom materials and complete calculations.

Instructional integration - used in many ways to enhance learning Also:

• Making possible visual teaching demonstrations
• Supporting student products (create timelines, charts and graphs)
• Supporting mathematical problem solving
• Sorting and analyzing data
• Projecting grades

Teaching Spreadsheet Skills - See page 137, Figure 4.12

Using Database Software in Teaching and Learning

Databases are computer programs that allow users to store, organize and manipulate information, including both text and numerical data. (Can use to locate info through keyword searches)

The impact of Databases in Education - benefits:

• Reducing data redundancy (cuts down on both the expense and physical space needed to store information)
• Saving time locating and/or updating information
• Allowing comparisons of information through searches across files
• Helping reveal relationships among data

Issues - it's important to know how to find information but also to know what one can or should do with that information. Concerns about the use of databases in education:

• Simplified access vs privacy
• Coping with information overload

Databases in the Classroom -

Productivity strategies - teachers use prepared databases much more widely than ever before, but they usually don't create them. Current uses include:

• Inventorying and locating instructional resources
• Data mining for planning and reporting
• Using information on students to respond to questions or perform required tasks
• Sending personalized letters to parents and others

Instructional integration strategies - ways teachers use databases to enhance learning:

• Teaching research and study skills - locating and organizing information to answer questions and learn new concepts
• Teaching organizational skills (handing information)
• Understanding the power of information "pictures" - Sometimes a database can generate an information picture or relationships among bits of information that may not be visible in any other way.
• Posing and testing hypotheses
• Searching for information during research

Teaching database skills - See page 145, Figure 4.16

Summary of Software Tool Integration Strategies

The primary benefits of software tools are to reduce the labor involved in preparing student products and remove logistical barriers to learning.

Chapter 3 - Teaching with Instructional Software

What is instructional software?

(also called causeway) is applications software that is designed to deliver or assist with student instruction on a topic. They are programs developed for the sole purpose of delivering instruction or supporting learning.

Drill and Practice, tutorial, simulation, instructional game, problem solving are software packages of the past. Now they contain several different activities, each performing a different function.

Logo- a widely known programming language used for instruction. (Introduces children to problem solving and to exploring concepts in content areas like math, science, and language arts.

Seymour Papert (MIT) - made Logo widely used throughout the world as an intro. programming language and mathematical learning environment for elementary and secondary school students.

Recent Trends in Software Design and Delivery

• Multimedia design elements
• Online access and components
• Renewed emphasis on directed strategies and network systems (the NCLB Act, emphasizing accountability, has created a new demand for products called integrated learning systems- these systems provide computer based instruction and summary reports of progress.)

Drill and Practice

Definition - provides exercises in which students work example items, usually one at a time, and receive feedback on their correctness.

Characteristics-

• Flash card activity - the most basic
• Branching Drill - moves students to advanced questions after they get a number of questions correct
• Extensive feedback- get more than just correct/incorrect feedback

Criteria for Selecting Good Drill and Practice Software -

• Students should have as much time as they wish to answer and examine the feedback before proceeding to later questions.
• Answer judging - if short answers are allowed, the software needs to be able to discriminate between right and wrong answers.
• Appropriate Feedback - simple and should display quickly (some programs have more exciting feedback for wrong answers which inadvertently motivate the students to get wrong answers.

Benefits -

• Practice gives students more rapid recall skills (Automaticity - automatic recall of lower skills to help master higher order ones faster and more easily) (These programs are especially popular among teachers with students with learning disabilities.)
• Benefits compared to paper exercises: Immediate feedback, motivation, saving teacher time

Limitations and Problems-

• "Drill and Kill" (overuse)
• shouldn't be used for long periods of time or for teaching functions that drills are ill suited to accomplish
• Critics claim that introducing skills and directing them to practice, contradicts the restructured curriculum where students learn and use skills in an integrated way within the context of their own projects.

How to Use Drill and Practice -

• Supplement or replace worksheets and homework exercises
• Prepare for tests

Guidelines -

• Set time limits - 10 to 15 minutes
• Assign individually - work best for individual use
• Use learning stations

Tutorials

Definition and Characteristics- an entire instructional sequence similar to a teacher's classroom instruction on a topic. Students should be able to learn the topic without any help or other materials. They are true teaching, unlike other instructional software. Should provide one or more practice sequences to check comprehension. There are two types...Linear and Branching. Usually geared towards learners who can read fairly well (older students or adults).

Criteria for Effective Tutorial Software -

• Extensive Interactivity - should require students to give frequent and thoughtful responses and supply appropriate practice and feedback.
• Thorough User Control
• Appropriate Pedagogy - builds on concepts and covers the content accurately
• Adequate Answer Judging and Feedback
• Appropriate Graphics
• Adequate Recordkeeping

Benefits - Same benefits as drill and practice (immediate, private feedback, time savings). Also offers instruction that can stand on its own.

Samples:

http://www.mathandscience4u.com/

http://www.congressforkids.net/

http://www.meritsoftware.com/

Limitations and Problems -

• Deliver directed instruction rather than letting students generate their own knowledge through hands-on projects.
• Lack of good products
• Reflect only one instructional approach

Classroom integration strategies -

• Self-paced reviews of instruction
• Alternative learning strategies (advanced students can get background material for further work assignments)
• Instruction when teachers are unavailable

Guidelines for using tutorials -

• Assign individually
• Use learning stations or individual checkout

Simulation Software

Definition and Characteristics - A computerized model of a real or imagined system that is designed to teach how the system works. Two main types - those that teach ABOUT something and those that teach HOW TO DO something.

Simulations that teach ABOUT something are physical or iterative.

Simulations that teach HOW TO DO something are procedural or situational.

Simulations usually emphasize learning about the system itself, rather than learning general problem solving strategies.

Criteria for selecting - System fidelity and accuracy, good documentation to explain system characteristics and uses.

Benefits - Field of science includes more simulations than any other areas.

• Compress time (can make something happen in seconds instead of days, weeks)
• Slow down process
• Get students involved "What would you do?"
• Make experimentation safe
• Save money and other resources (dissections of animals)
• Allow repetition with variations
• Allow observation of complex processes

Limitations and Problems -

• Accuracy - students may get inaccurate perspectives on a systems complexities
• Misuse of simulations

Classroom Applications of simulation functions - consider simulations:

• In place of or as supplements to lab experiments
• In place of or as supplements to field trips
• To introduce or clarify a new topic
• To foster exploration and process learning
• To encourage cooperation and group work

Simulations offer more versatile implementation that tutorials or drills. They work equally effectively with whole class, small groups or individuals.

Instructional Game Software Functions

Definition and Characteristics - Software designed to increase motivation by adding game rules and or competition to learning activities. Their instructional connotation to students is slightly different (fun and entertaining) so they are listed as a separate software activity.

Criteria for Selecting - (Share many of the same criteria)

• Appealing formats and activities (elements of adventure and uncertainty)
• Instructional value
• Physical dexterity is reasonable (so students are motivated not frustrated)
• Minimum violence/aggression

Benefits - Fun activities motivate students to spend more time on a topic

Limitations -

• Learning vs having fun
• Confusion of game rules and real-life rules
• Inefficient learning

Classroom applications -

• In place of worksheets and exercises
• To teach cooperative group working skills
• As a reward

Guidelines for using -

• Use sparingly (some students are unmotivated or threatened by competition)
• Involve all students
• Emphasize the content-area skills

Problem Solving Software

Definition and Characteristics - Software that either teaches specific steps for solving certain problems (math word problems) or helps students learn general problem solving behaviors for a class of problems.

Two Main Approaches - (primarily math and science)

• Content-area skills - directed more toward supplying prerequisite skills for specific kinds of problems
• Content-free skills -aims towards motivating students to attack problems and to recognize solving problems as part of everyday life.

Criteria for Selection -

• Challenging, interesting formats
• Clear links to developing specific problem-solving skills or abilities

Benefits -

• Activities motivate students to spend more time on the topic
• Prevent inert knowledge by illustrating situations in which skills apply (students learn both knowledge and application at the same time -discover concepts themselves.)

Limitations - Although these are the most popular of all software functions:

• Names vs skills - terms used to describe problem solving/exact meaning are not always clear
• Software claims vs effectiveness
• Possible negative effects - may be counterproductive for some students - may interfere with their own effective processing
• Transfer - no evidence to support that content area skills will transfer

Classroom Integration Strategies -

• To teach component skills in problem solving strategies
• To provide support in solving problems
• To encourage group problem solving

Guidelines for directed teaching -

1. Identify problem solving skills to build or foster
2. Decide on activity that would help teach desired skills
3. Examine software - don't look at vendors claims
4. Determine if it fits into teaching sequence
5. Demonstrate the software
6. Build in transfer activities so students see the skills they are using

Guidelines for constructivist strategies -

1. Allow students sufficient time to explore and interact with software
2. Vary the amount of direction and assistance
3. Promote a reflective learning environment
4. Stress thinking processes rather than correct answers
5. Point out relationships between software activities and other kinds of problem solving
6. Let students work together in pairs or small groups
7. For assessments, use alternatives to paper and pencil tests.

Integrated Learning Systems (ILSs)

Systems that offer computer-based instruction and other resources to support instruction, along with summary reports of student progress. Offers a variety of instructional approaches, usually in a curriculum package and capable of maintaining detailed records.

Characteristics -

• Instructional objectives specified
• Lessons integrated into standard curriculum
• Software that spans grade levels
• Management system that collects and records results of student performance

Management system of ILS provides progress reports that show lessons and tests completed, questions missed, number of correct and incorrect, time spent on each lesson, pretest and post-test data.

Criteria for effective ILS - Good curriculum coverage and pedagogical coverage, several different report formats, easily read reports.

Benefits -

• Can help provide Supplemental Educational Services required for NCLB
• Easier to access via network or online
• Entire curriculum at one source
• Personalized instruction matched to student needs
• Summary progress data help meet teacher/district accountability requirements

Limitations - Vendors tend to refer to their systems as "educational solutions" or "supplemental educational services" which sometimes is not the case. Concerns include:

• The costs of ILS's
• Research on ILS's - research on student achievement varies greatly with implementation methods.
• Concern about the role of ILS's - Lack of teacher involvement?

Directed applications for ILS's -

• For remediation
• As a mainstream delivery system

Summary of Instructional Software Integration Strategies

Figure 3.10 (page 107)

Teachers should review software even after prescreening by committees or experts. Each teacher must then determine which specific curriculum needs and specific grade levels the package addresses.

Evaluation Procedures -

1. Begin with the identified need
2. Locate titles
3. Complete hands-on reviews
4. Assign and collect student reviews

Essential and Optional Criteria for Software Evaluation Procedures -

Essential - Does it teach?

• Appropriate teaching strategy- based on known methods
• Presentation on screen contains nothing that misleads or confuses students
• Comments to students are not abusive or insulting
• Readability at an appropriate level for students who will use it
• Graphics are not distracting
• Criteria specific to software types

Essential - Is content accurate, current, and appropriate?

• No grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors on the screen
• All content accurate and up to date
• No racial or gender stereotypes; not geared towards only one sex or to certain races
• Social characteristics - avoid violence
• Match to instructional needs

Essential - Is it user friendly?

• User has appropriate control of movement within the program
• User can turn off sound if desired

Essential - Does it work correctly?

• Program loads consistently, does not break (no matter what the student enters)
• Program works on desired platform (Windows or Macintosh)
• Program does what the screen says it should do
• Online links work correctly
• Videos and animations work correctly

Try these sources for evaluating:

SREB's EvaluTech Program, The California Learning Resource Network, The Superkids website