Chapter 3 - Teaching with Instructional Software

What is instructional software?

(also called causeway) is applications software that is designed to deliver or assist with student instruction on a topic. They are programs developed for the sole purpose of delivering instruction or supporting learning.

Drill and Practice, tutorial, simulation, instructional game, problem solving are software packages of the past. Now they contain several different activities, each performing a different function.

Logo- a widely known programming language used for instruction. (Introduces children to problem solving and to exploring concepts in content areas like math, science, and language arts.

Seymour Papert (MIT) - made Logo widely used throughout the world as an intro. programming language and mathematical learning environment for elementary and secondary school students.

Recent Trends in Software Design and Delivery

• Multimedia design elements
• Online access and components
• Renewed emphasis on directed strategies and network systems (the NCLB Act, emphasizing accountability, has created a new demand for products called integrated learning systems- these systems provide computer based instruction and summary reports of progress.)

Drill and Practice

Definition - provides exercises in which students work example items, usually one at a time, and receive feedback on their correctness.

Characteristics-

• Flash card activity - the most basic
• Branching Drill - moves students to advanced questions after they get a number of questions correct
• Extensive feedback- get more than just correct/incorrect feedback

Criteria for Selecting Good Drill and Practice Software -

• Students should have as much time as they wish to answer and examine the feedback before proceeding to later questions.
• Answer judging - if short answers are allowed, the software needs to be able to discriminate between right and wrong answers.
• Appropriate Feedback - simple and should display quickly (some programs have more exciting feedback for wrong answers which inadvertently motivate the students to get wrong answers.

Benefits -

• Practice gives students more rapid recall skills (Automaticity - automatic recall of lower skills to help master higher order ones faster and more easily) (These programs are especially popular among teachers with students with learning disabilities.)
• Benefits compared to paper exercises: Immediate feedback, motivation, saving teacher time

Limitations and Problems-

• "Drill and Kill" (overuse)
• shouldn't be used for long periods of time or for teaching functions that drills are ill suited to accomplish
• Critics claim that introducing skills and directing them to practice, contradicts the restructured curriculum where students learn and use skills in an integrated way within the context of their own projects.

How to Use Drill and Practice -

• Supplement or replace worksheets and homework exercises
• Prepare for tests

Guidelines -

• Set time limits - 10 to 15 minutes
• Assign individually - work best for individual use
• Use learning stations

Tutorials

Definition and Characteristics- an entire instructional sequence similar to a teacher's classroom instruction on a topic. Students should be able to learn the topic without any help or other materials. They are true teaching, unlike other instructional software. Should provide one or more practice sequences to check comprehension. There are two types...Linear and Branching. Usually geared towards learners who can read fairly well (older students or adults).

Criteria for Effective Tutorial Software -

• Extensive Interactivity - should require students to give frequent and thoughtful responses and supply appropriate practice and feedback.
• Thorough User Control
• Appropriate Pedagogy - builds on concepts and covers the content accurately
• Adequate Answer Judging and Feedback
• Appropriate Graphics
• Adequate Recordkeeping

Benefits - Same benefits as drill and practice (immediate, private feedback, time savings). Also offers instruction that can stand on its own.

Samples:

http://www.mathandscience4u.com/

http://www.congressforkids.net/

http://www.meritsoftware.com/

Limitations and Problems -

• Deliver directed instruction rather than letting students generate their own knowledge through hands-on projects.
• Lack of good products
• Reflect only one instructional approach

Classroom integration strategies -

• Self-paced reviews of instruction
• Alternative learning strategies (advanced students can get background material for further work assignments)
• Instruction when teachers are unavailable

Guidelines for using tutorials -

• Assign individually
• Use learning stations or individual checkout

Simulation Software

Definition and Characteristics - A computerized model of a real or imagined system that is designed to teach how the system works. Two main types - those that teach ABOUT something and those that teach HOW TO DO something.

Simulations that teach ABOUT something are physical or iterative.

Simulations that teach HOW TO DO something are procedural or situational.

Simulations usually emphasize learning about the system itself, rather than learning general problem solving strategies.

Criteria for selecting - System fidelity and accuracy, good documentation to explain system characteristics and uses.

Benefits - Field of science includes more simulations than any other areas.

• Compress time (can make something happen in seconds instead of days, weeks)
• Slow down process
• Get students involved "What would you do?"
• Make experimentation safe
• Save money and other resources (dissections of animals)
• Allow repetition with variations
• Allow observation of complex processes

Limitations and Problems -

• Accuracy - students may get inaccurate perspectives on a systems complexities
• Misuse of simulations

Classroom Applications of simulation functions - consider simulations:

• In place of or as supplements to lab experiments
• In place of or as supplements to field trips
• To introduce or clarify a new topic
• To foster exploration and process learning
• To encourage cooperation and group work

Simulations offer more versatile implementation that tutorials or drills. They work equally effectively with whole class, small groups or individuals.

Instructional Game Software Functions

Definition and Characteristics - Software designed to increase motivation by adding game rules and or competition to learning activities. Their instructional connotation to students is slightly different (fun and entertaining) so they are listed as a separate software activity.

Criteria for Selecting - (Share many of the same criteria)

• Appealing formats and activities (elements of adventure and uncertainty)
• Instructional value
• Physical dexterity is reasonable (so students are motivated not frustrated)
• Minimum violence/aggression

Benefits - Fun activities motivate students to spend more time on a topic

Limitations -

• Learning vs having fun
• Confusion of game rules and real-life rules
• Inefficient learning

Classroom applications -

• In place of worksheets and exercises
• To teach cooperative group working skills
• As a reward

Guidelines for using -

• Use sparingly (some students are unmotivated or threatened by competition)
• Involve all students
• Emphasize the content-area skills

Problem Solving Software

Definition and Characteristics - Software that either teaches specific steps for solving certain problems (math word problems) or helps students learn general problem solving behaviors for a class of problems.

Two Main Approaches - (primarily math and science)

• Content-area skills - directed more toward supplying prerequisite skills for specific kinds of problems
• Content-free skills -aims towards motivating students to attack problems and to recognize solving problems as part of everyday life.

Criteria for Selection -

• Challenging, interesting formats
• Clear links to developing specific problem-solving skills or abilities

Benefits -

• Activities motivate students to spend more time on the topic
• Prevent inert knowledge by illustrating situations in which skills apply (students learn both knowledge and application at the same time -discover concepts themselves.)

Limitations - Although these are the most popular of all software functions:

• Names vs skills - terms used to describe problem solving/exact meaning are not always clear
• Software claims vs effectiveness
• Possible negative effects - may be counterproductive for some students - may interfere with their own effective processing
• Transfer - no evidence to support that content area skills will transfer

Classroom Integration Strategies -

• To teach component skills in problem solving strategies
• To provide support in solving problems
• To encourage group problem solving

Guidelines for directed teaching -

1. Identify problem solving skills to build or foster
2. Decide on activity that would help teach desired skills
3. Examine software - don't look at vendors claims
4. Determine if it fits into teaching sequence
5. Demonstrate the software
6. Build in transfer activities so students see the skills they are using

Guidelines for constructivist strategies -

1. Allow students sufficient time to explore and interact with software
2. Vary the amount of direction and assistance
3. Promote a reflective learning environment
4. Stress thinking processes rather than correct answers
5. Point out relationships between software activities and other kinds of problem solving
6. Let students work together in pairs or small groups
7. For assessments, use alternatives to paper and pencil tests.

Integrated Learning Systems (ILSs)

Systems that offer computer-based instruction and other resources to support instruction, along with summary reports of student progress. Offers a variety of instructional approaches, usually in a curriculum package and capable of maintaining detailed records.

Characteristics -

• Instructional objectives specified
• Lessons integrated into standard curriculum
• Software that spans grade levels
• Management system that collects and records results of student performance

Management system of ILS provides progress reports that show lessons and tests completed, questions missed, number of correct and incorrect, time spent on each lesson, pretest and post-test data.

Criteria for effective ILS - Good curriculum coverage and pedagogical coverage, several different report formats, easily read reports.

Benefits -

• Can help provide Supplemental Educational Services required for NCLB
• Easier to access via network or online
• Entire curriculum at one source
• Personalized instruction matched to student needs
• Summary progress data help meet teacher/district accountability requirements

Limitations - Vendors tend to refer to their systems as "educational solutions" or "supplemental educational services" which sometimes is not the case. Concerns include:

• The costs of ILS's
• Research on ILS's - research on student achievement varies greatly with implementation methods.
• Concern about the role of ILS's - Lack of teacher involvement?

Directed applications for ILS's -

• For remediation
• As a mainstream delivery system

Summary of Instructional Software Integration Strategies

Figure 3.10 (page 107)

Teachers should review software even after prescreening by committees or experts. Each teacher must then determine which specific curriculum needs and specific grade levels the package addresses.

Evaluation Procedures -

1. Begin with the identified need
2. Locate titles
3. Complete hands-on reviews
4. Assign and collect student reviews

Essential and Optional Criteria for Software Evaluation Procedures -

Essential - Does it teach?

• Appropriate teaching strategy- based on known methods
• Presentation on screen contains nothing that misleads or confuses students
• Comments to students are not abusive or insulting
• Readability at an appropriate level for students who will use it
• Graphics are not distracting
• Criteria specific to software types

Essential - Is content accurate, current, and appropriate?

• No grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors on the screen
• All content accurate and up to date
• No racial or gender stereotypes; not geared towards only one sex or to certain races
• Social characteristics - avoid violence
• Match to instructional needs

Essential - Is it user friendly?

• User has appropriate control of movement within the program
• User can turn off sound if desired

Essential - Does it work correctly?

• Program loads consistently, does not break (no matter what the student enters)
• Program works on desired platform (Windows or Macintosh)
• Program does what the screen says it should do
• Online links work correctly
• Videos and animations work correctly

Try these sources for evaluating:

SREB's EvaluTech Program, The California Learning Resource Network, The Superkids website